INSTRUCTIONAL
DESIGN
Chapter
I
Origins of Systematically Designed Instruction
Systematically
designed in instruction provides teachers with statement of exact skills to be
learned. These two types of defenitions reflect in part the two traditions
which have contributed the most to the growth of systematically designed
instruction . These two approaches may be characterized as the humanistic
approach and the behavioral science or system approaches to instruction.
Most teachers view themselves as
humanist. Survey indicate that many
select the teaching profession because of their interest in helping student.
Teachers are almost always concern about the feelings, attitudes, beliefs, and
values of student, that is, about those things which make an individual
distinctly human. The importance of the interactive relationship between the
teacher and the student and emphasize such aspects of the educational process
as flexibility and adaptability, methods of learning, self-actualization,
discovery methods, and promotion of student’s individuality.
Some teachers prefer a behavioral
approach to teaching. This individual tend to view the teacher as one
responsible for instruction in cultural heritage, social responsibilities, and
specific subject matter. This type of teacher emphasize a carefully prepared lesson plan, logically
organized material, and specific educational objectives and tends to emphasized
“getting the correct answer”.
Both these instructional aproaches
–humanistic and the behavioral –empasized the significance of individual
differences and necessity for providing appropriate instruction to student.
More and more teachers esspecially in elementary school level, have begun to
individualize their instruction in the classroom. The integration of humanistic
and behavioristapproaches means a change in the teacher’s role. Obviously, the
teacher must be concerned with the act of teaching. While skills of of
implementation and evaluation of instructon are crucial to the teacher, an
equally critical skill is that instructional design principles that have been
succesfully applied by professional instructional designers can prove equally
valuable to the instructor.
The types of instructional materials
which are typically used in systematically designed instuction have come to be
referred to as modules. Various
componenets of a building are built an assembled in a factory and shipped to
the construction site. A module is a self-contained or self-instructional unit
of instruction that has an intergratde theme, provides students with
information needed to acquire specified knowledge and skills, and serves as one
component of a total curriculum.
Most instructor would agree with the
defenition given above. However they would differ on a number of the specific
characteristics of modules. Some designers will insist that a module
instruction should include at least two alternative conceptual presentations of
the instructional materials and preferably two or more modes of presentation to
accomodate individual differences.
In addition, some instructors would
argue that a module should be strictly self-contained. That is, a student
should be able to achieve all the objectives which are stated in the module
without interacting wiyh the teacher or other individuals. Other instructors
will specifically include in the design of the module the participation of
peers, teachers, and outsiders in order to involve the student in variety of
interactive activities.
The system approach models are an
outgrowth of over twenty years of research into learning process. Each
component of the model is based upon theoritical or research outcomes which
demonstrate the effectiveness of that component. The model bring together in
one coherent whole many of the contest that you may have already encountered in
variety of educational situations.
Componenets of the systems approach
model are:
a.
Identifying an instructional
goal. The first step in the model is to determine what it is that you want
students to be able to do when they have completed your instruction.
b.
Conducting an instructional
analysis. Identify the instructional goal, analyze it in order to identify the
subordinate skills that a student must learn in order to achieve that goal.
c.
Identifying entry behaviors and
characteristics. In addition to identifyng the substance of the
content which must be included in the instruction.
d.
Writing performance objectives.
Identified in the instructional analysis to identify student’s skills.
e.
Developing criterion-refernced
test. Then, develop assesment instruments which are parallel to and measure the
student’s ability to achieve what you describe in the objectives.
f.
Developing an instructional
strategy. The strategy will include section on preinstructional activities,
presentation of information, practice and feedback, testing , and follow trough
activities.
g.
Developing and selecting
instruction. In this step teachers or designers will utilize their strategy to
produce the instructional module.
h.
Design and conducting the
formative evaluation, revising instruction and conducting summative evaluation.
Chapter
2
Identifying
An Instructional Goal
Many states
have general educational goals stated for their programs. These goal statement
so general that it is almost impossible to design instruction to meet the
goals. It is often necessary for a particular school or school district to
develop its own statement of educational philosophy and goals which is specific
to the students are also too general for the designer.
School goals are often converted into
curriculum guides which will, if properly used, result in student learning
consistent with goals. The curriculum guides become the general outline for the
course of instruction. At this level, however, the designer can begin to derive
specific kinds of behaviors which student should be able to accomplish as a
result of the instructional program.
In recent years statements the school
district goals have been supplemented by needs assesment studies. Another source of instructional goals is that
expert opinion. In a number of content
areas, subject-matters-experts have been employed to identify critical topics
in a defined decipline. Instructor who work in adult continuing education
programs may need to depend upon interest surveys to identify skills and
knowledge which adults wish to learn in nonformal or continuing education.
Instructional goals describe what
students will be able to do after studying the unit, not what teachers will do
during the unit. The instructional goal for one module may describe the skills
a student must perform as the curriculum
builds toward high level of skills, knowledge and understanding. The
building process can be achieved through
integrating several modules, using instructional goals to interrelate various
module one to another.
Specialized help is available for
instructor at all levels of education . those teaching in colleges and
universities usually have collegues who are considered specialist in certain content areas. Another
consideration to determine whether the instructional goal describe two or more
related or separate kinds of behavior.
This is certainly acceptable and in no way should result in stating a
new goal. Another area of concern in identifying an instructional goal is the
availability of students.
A final concern of matching the
instructional goals to student is identifying areas where they have had
difficulty learning in the past. Experienced instrutors can identify particular
concepts, principles, and problem-solving
tasks which almost always prove to be difficult topics may be ideally
suited for a module.
All the factors listed above are important in selecting an
instructional goal for a module. Experience indicates that of these factors are
of extreme importance to the person who is developing a first module: magnitude
of content to be covered, subject-matter expertise, and availabiality of a
students.
Three characteristics of instructional
goals should be considered. They are (1) wheteher the goal is behavior and
nonbehavior; thet is it describe what the student wil do; (2) whether the goal
is too large, too small or just right for your purpose and your students’
needs; and (3) whether the goal the goal you have chosen is “fuzzy” or clear.
In general, goal statement shoulde
describe behaviors that someone could observe a student doing. Behavioral goals
have as their outcome a behavior which can be directly observed and measured as
evidence of whether the behavior has been acquired.
Nonbehavioral goal statements describe
outcomes that are not directly observable and therefore are hard to measure and
should be avoide if possible. An example of a nonbehavioral goal statement
would be : “students will appreciate watercolor paintings”. Nonbehavioral goal statements can sometimes
be indirectly measured by making inferences about the meaning of a person’s behavior.
For example, if a person always chose watercolor, or to paint with watercolor
can be observed-these are all behavioral outcomes.
Many considerations must be made to
determine whether a peace of instruction will be too large, too small, or just right
for intended students. Factors relating to the length of time available for
instructional activities and practice, the logical sectioning of content, the
type of learning activity, and must all be considered before judgements about
the correct size of instructional “chunk” be made.
Instruction for the goal could be fit
into one hour if the goal were restated thusly: “the student will be able to
describe in his or her own words the five main activities related to
scientific investigation and tge purpose
for each activity”. This type of information goal may serve as an overview to
instruction on scientific methods and may serve as an organizer for students’
thoughts; however, it will not teach students to carry out scientific
investigation.
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